4. Studies on Culture in Management

• Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory:

  • Influential framework based on a survey of IBM employees in over 70 countries.
  • Identified five key dimensions:
    • Power Distance: High in India, Mexico; Low in Denmark, Austria.
    • Individualism/Collectivism: High in the United States, Australia; Low in Guatemala, Ecuador.
    • Masculinity/Femininity: High in Japan, Mexico; Low in Sweden, Norway.
    • Uncertainty Avoidance: High in Greece, Japan; Low in Singapore, Sweden.
    • Long-Term Orientation: High in China, Japan; Low in Pakistan, Nigeria.

• GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness):

  • Comprehensive model including dimensions like performance orientation, humane orientation, and institutional collectivism.
  • Based on data collected from managers in over 60 countries.

• Trompenaars' Cultural Dimensions:

  • Focuses on relationships, time, and the environment.
  • Identifies dimensions like universalism vs. particularism, individualism vs. collectivism, neutral vs. affective, specific vs. diffuse.

• Hall's High-Context and Low-Context Cultures:

  • Distinguishes between cultures that rely heavily on implicit communication (high-context) and those that rely more on explicit communication (low-context).
    • High-Context: Japan, China (rely heavily on nonverbal cues and context)
    • Low-Context: United States, Germany (rely more on explicit verbal communication)

• Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations:

  • Focuses on how different cultures answer fundamental questions about human existence (relationships between humans and nature, human nature, time orientation).