4. Studies on Culture in Management
-
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory:
- Influential framework based on a survey of IBM employees in over 70 countries.
- Identified five key dimensions:
- Power Distance: High in India, Mexico; Low in Denmark, Austria.
- Individualism/Collectivism: High in the United States, Australia; Low in Guatemala, Ecuador.
- Masculinity/Femininity: High in Japan, Mexico; Low in Sweden, Norway.
- Uncertainty Avoidance: High in Greece, Japan; Low in Singapore, Sweden.
- Long-Term Orientation: High in China, Japan; Low in Pakistan, Nigeria.
-
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness):
- Comprehensive model including dimensions like performance orientation, humane orientation, and institutional collectivism.
- Based on data collected from managers in over 60 countries.
-
Trompenaars' Cultural Dimensions:
- Focuses on relationships, time, and the environment.
- Identifies dimensions like universalism vs. particularism, individualism vs. collectivism, neutral vs. affective, specific vs. diffuse.
-
Hall's High-Context and Low-Context Cultures:
- Distinguishes between cultures that rely heavily on implicit communication (high-context) and those that rely more on explicit communication (low-context).
- High-Context: Japan, China (rely heavily on nonverbal cues and context)
- Low-Context: United States, Germany (rely more on explicit verbal communication)
- Distinguishes between cultures that rely heavily on implicit communication (high-context) and those that rely more on explicit communication (low-context).
-
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations:
- Focuses on how different cultures answer fundamental questions about human existence (relationships between humans and nature, human nature, time orientation).